On 29 December 1874, General Arsenio Martínez Campos's pronunciamiento overthrew the First Spanish Republic and restored the monarchy, crowning Alfonso XII, son of the exiled Isabella II, as king. The Constitution of 1876 was soon established; it remained in force throughout the Restoration. This constitution established Spain as a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature (Cortes Generales) consisting of an upper house (Senate) and a lower house (Congress of Deputies). The king held the power to appoint senators and to annul laws at his discretion. He was given the honorific title of Commander-in-Chief of the army. These were years of economic prosperity. Since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, Spain's economy had lagged even further behind that of other European countries. During this time, the country underwent significant modernization. Domestic production was expanded in most areas, supported by a highly protectionist policy. The Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, and the Conservative Party, led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, alternated in power through the controlled process of el turno pacífico. Local figures, known as caciques, manipulated the election results, fueling growing resentment of the system. This led to the formation of major nationalist