Cheikh Mohammed ben Larbi
Sheikh Mohammed Bou Amama (literally "the turban-bearer"; real name Hajj ben Larbi) (1840, Morocco — October 7, 1908, Oujda, Morocco) was a Murabite, military and statesman of Algeria, leader of the uprising of the confederation of tribes of Ulad Sidi Sheikh against the French colonialists in Algeria in 1881-1883. Since 1875, he lived in the zawiya of Moghrar Takhtani in the south of Oran. He enjoyed great authority among his tribesmen for his sermons of the holy war (jihad) against the colonialists. He put an end to tribal differences and established his military base in Moghrar Takhtani. In 1878, an order was issued for his arrest, but the authorities were unable to carry it out. In April 1881, Bu Amama rebelled, participated in many battles with the French army in 1881-1908, in which the enemy suffered significant losses. He led the rebels in the battle of Ksar Shellala, in which the French troops were defeated. For about 2 years he controlled the vast areas between the Sahara and the city of Saida. In 1883, due to disagreements between the tribes, he was forced to retreat to Morocco. After Sheikh Bou Amama retreated to Morocco, the French conquest of Algeria was completed. He returned to his homeland in 1900 and settled near the city of Ujda. The resistance of Sheikh Bu Amam lasted for more than twenty-three years, he was called the
"2nd Emir Abd al-Qadir". He was known for his exceptional ability to resist the occupying French forces, who failed to put an end to his activities, despite all their political and military attempts, until his death in October 1908.
The "Odjak of Algiers" (also spelled Ujaq) was a unit of the Algerian army. It was a highly autonomous part of the Janissary Corps, acting completely independently from the rest of the corps, similar to the relationship between Algiers and the Sublime Porte. Led by an Agha, they also took part in the country's internal administration and politics, ruling the country for several years. They acted as a defense unit, a Praetorian Guard, and an instrument of repression. The Odjak of Algiers was a faction in the country which encompassed all Janissaries. Its main institution was the diwân of Algiers which was established in the 16th century by Hayreddin Barbarossa and seated first in the Djenina Palace, then at the kasbah citadel. This assembly, initially led by a janissary Agha, evolved from a military body, the Odjak of Algiers, into the country's primary administrative institution. The diwân held true power in the Regency, and by the mid-17th century elected the head of state. They also often controlled the country, for example during the period of Aghas from 1659 to 1671. The army was divided into 4 regions, the exact same regions as the administrational ones (Beyliks): Western Army, headed by the Beys of Mascara/Oran; Central Army, headed by the Bey of Titteri; Eastern Army, headed by the Bey of Constantine; Dar as-Soltan army, headed by the Dey and the Agha. These troops were headed by the Beys, and a Khalifa (general) appointed
by them. The supreme commander of the army was the Agha al-Mahalla Levying these troops was the job of the Bey. The Odjak was headed by an Agha elected by the Odjak itself. When Algiers came under attack, the Beyliks would send their troops to help the besieged city, such as in 1775 during the Spanish Invasion of Algiers. As the Beys were regional commanders, they also fought the wars in their own region, occasionally reinforced by troops from the Dar as-Soltan army. For example, in 1792, during the reconquest of Oran, the Bey Mohammed el Kebir, was the one to besiege the city using the army of the Beylik of the West, numbering up to 50,0000 with some additional reinforcements from Algiers. During the Algerian-Tunisian war of 1807 the Eastern army fought against the Tunisians. Its composition was 25,000 levy warriors from Constantine, and 5,000 reinforcements from Algiers. Sub-commanders usually included powerful tribal sheiks, djouads, or qaids. Not much is known about the spahis of Algiers, other than the fact that they were a regular standing unit, mainly composed of locals, although there were Turks amongst them. They differed greatly from the traditional Ottoman sipahis, in both military equipment and organization, and hardly had anything in common with them other than their names, and both being cavalry units. The Dey also periodically had several thousand spahis in his service acting as a personal guard. Other than the Dey's guard, Spahis were not recruited or stationed in Algiers, instead being usually recruited by the Beys. They were usually more organized than the irregular tribal cavalry, although far less numerous. The French Spahi units were based on the Algerian spahis, and they were both mainly light cavalry.
The Awlad Sidi Shaykh was a confederation of Arab tribes in the west and south of Algeria led by the descendants of the Sufi saint Sidi Shaykh. The Awlad had religious authority, and also owned agricultural settlements and engaged in trade. During the French occupation of Algeria they alternately cooperated with and opposed the colonialists. The Awlad Sidi Shaykh trace their ancestry to the saint Sidi Shaykh, a descendant of Muhammad's father-in-law Abu Bakr, the first caliph. In the 16th century the growing population in the south-western Algerian Sahara created a need for more intense farming and for collaboration between farmers and nomads. Saint Sidi Shaykh founded a community of date farmers and nomads engaged in the caravan trade. A. G. P. Martin dates this to 1651, when the walis of
the Tuat and Gurara brought the Sharifian ideology to the villages of the Zenata Berbers. Their headquarters was a prayer-meditation center that taught the ethics of hard work and sharing among and between the farmers and nomads. Arab tribes in the Gurara and the Sahara such as the Khenafsa became faithful to the Awlad Sidi Shaykh, the mrabtin[a] of the Saharan Atlas Mountains. As the population pressure slackened in the following centuries the Awlad Sidi Shaykh gradually took control of the prayer-meditation center and grew into a mid-sized tribe. The religious ideals of cooperation were replaced by a system where the Awlad Sidi Shaykh used alms to maintain their dominance. They became the dominant tribal and religious federation in the Aïn Madhi region of the central northern Algerian desert. They owned houses and storage places in the Gourara and Tuat region, and controlled zawaya religious strongholds throughout the greater Tuat. The zawaya owned large gardens worked by slaves and served as markets and travel lodges. They sent their earnings to the mother zawiya in El Abiodh Sidi Cheikh in the northwest of Algeria. Descendants of the Awlad Sidi Shaykh lived in the zawaya, where they were known as Zuwa or Ahl 'Azzi. They also owned land in the Hoggar Mountains, where they were religious scholars, teachers and traders. In the Hoggar Mountains they established agricultural settlements using slave labour, and these sometimes became staging posts on trade routes. There were trading communities of the Awlad Sidi Shaykh far to the south in Timbuktu, Kidal and Agadez, and to the east in Ghadames and Ghat. The confederation often came under the influence of the Sultan of Morocco. The Awlad Sidi Shaykh have been nomadic Bedouins inhabiting the Ksour Range since the 17th century. By the late 1950s, the Awlad Sidi Shaykh nomadized between the Saharan Atlas and the pastures of the Wadi Seggueur and Wadi Gharbi, and the Ksour Range. After the French invasion of Algiers in 1830 it became clear that they might try to occupy the whole country and impose a rule much less acceptable than that of the Turkish Bey. In 1831 the Duc de Rovigo caused a scandal in Algiers when he built a military highway through two functioning cemeteries with no respect for the human remains, and converted several mosques into Catholic churches. Algerians opposed to the French occupation came to accept 'Abd al-Qadir as leader of their movement. Some of the Awlad Sidi Shaykh recognized 'Abd al-Qadir as sultan, as did the powerful Banu Hashim and Banu 'Amir. These groups of the Oran Plateau and the Plain of Gharis accepted Muhyi al-Din, chief of the Qadiriyya Sufis, as the "Champion of Islam" against the French. In the 1840s the Awlad Sidi Shaykh assisted the Governor-General Thomas Robert Bugeaud in his struggle with the Emir 'Abd al-Qadir. However, in the southern desert regions they supported 'Abd al-Qadir. In the early 1850s the confederation was still divided. Some, led by Si Hamza, cooperated with the French. Others, led by Mohammed bin Abdallah, opposed them. Between 1864 and 1865 the Awlad Sidi Shaykh rose in rebellion against the French. The rebellion stopped southward French expansion near Oran. It was triggered by officers of the Arab Bureau (bureaux arabes) who were insensitive to the traditions of the Awlad. One of the main military leaders of the revolt was Si Sliman, head of one of the main families. The French suppressed the revolt through greatly superior force. Awlad Sidi Ahmad Majdub of the Amir Bedouin tribe of Morocco participated in the revolt, but was pardoned and placed in the Sebdou circle. The Awlad were restive during the Kabyle Revolt (1871–72) but did not play a major role. In the 1870s and 1880s local politics in Algeria were dominated by Europeans, commercial farming by French immigrants expanded, and funding for Islamic courts was cut, as was funding for schools that trained interpreters and judges. It was in this context that the Awlad Sidi Shaykh staged the last, desperate rural revolts along the frontier with Morocco. Plans to destroy the second Flatters expedition of 1880–81 were made by the Kel Ahaggar Tuaregs of the Hoggar Mountains, the Awlad Sidi Shaykh confederation and the Senussi before the expedition left Ouargla. They knew the planned route and were kept informed by the expedition guides, who helped sabotage the expedition by leading it past wells. Six hundred men of the three tribes gathered to ambush the expedition near the wells of Bir el-Garama. The result was a massacre of half the expedition members, while many of the others died during a long retreat. Until 1883 the Awlad continued to occasionally mount raids against the colonialists. The rebellion in the southwest led by Cheikh Bouamama (Shaykh Bu 'Amamah) from 1881 to 1883 fell apart due to disagreements among the tribes. When Cheikh Bouamama retreated to Morocco in 1882 the French conquest of the south of Algeria was complete. After this the Awlad Sidi Shaykh largely accepted French authority. As the rebellion died down, the itinerant marabouts of the Awlad Sidi Shaykh turned to rebuilding their business, demanding donations to their shrine from the peasants, who still thought they had strong influence with God. The colonial administrator Alfred Le Chatelier, a relatively enlightened secularist and republican, succeeded in convincing the Mekhedma tribe of the Sud-Oranais that they need not pay tribute. There were still disturbances until 1902, and one of Awlad's leaders, Bu 'Imama, continued to resist until 1904.
Awards: Sash and star of the Order of the Medjidie.
