granted the rank of Knights Hospitaller, elites who served as the officer corps. The Ordre was one of the ancestors of modern French naval schools including the French Naval Academy. 2) The Manche along Normandy which, since William the Conqueror, always tendered capable marines and sailors from its numerous active seaports. 3) The Atlantic Ocean, where the navy of the Duchy of Brittany eventually constituted the nucleus of the royal Flotte du Ponant, which projected French naval power across the Atlantic and the Americas. The French fleet appeared at the same time as territorial expansion in the 13th century, providing the royal domain with outlets at sea. The first navy was made up of small transport ships with no fighting capability, captained by pirates. For major campaigns in the Mediterranean, the king had to call on Genoese or Venetian fleets, while in the Atlantic and the English Channel they requisitioned fishing and merchant ships. It was under Philip IV the Fair that a real naval policy was put in place, with the creation of an arsenal in Rouen for the industrial construction of warships. The first component of the royal navy was the royal galley corps, which was created in 14101. In the mid-14th century, the admiral, whose office was created in 1270, was given the same powers at sea as the constable on land. He had authority over both military and civilian vessels, such as fishermen and merchants, and was assisted by lieutenants in each major port. As the annexations progressed, maritime provinces were created (Provence, Brittany and Guyenne), headed by admirals who came into conflict with the Admiral of France, whose power was limited to Normandy and Picardy. The first true French Royal Navy (French: la Marine Royale) was established in 1624 by Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister to King Louis XIII. Before Cardinal de Richelieu, France had no navy to speak of, apart from a few vessels that were often poorly maintained. The State therefore had to rely on private individuals in the event of war. Richelieu decided to give the kingdom a military navy that truly belonged to the State. It was under his impetus that a truly permanent Royal Navy was created, uniting and centralising the responsibilities associated with maritime power. It began in 1626, with the creation of the title of Grand Master of Navigation and his appointment to the post. The following year, the office of Admiral was abolished, as it had too much autonomous power. Until 1635, he bought or abolished the competing offices, by which time he possessed all maritime power. The office of Grand Master of Navigation was abolished and that of Admiral reinstated in 1669, but it became essentially honorary and was often held by children so as not to interfere with the Secretary of State for the Navy, who regained control of maritime power, despite tensions when the holder of the office of Admiral came of age. The Emperor Napoleon III was determined to follow an even stronger foreign policy than his predecessors, and the Navy was involved in a multitude of actions around the world. He joined in the Crimean War in 1854; major actions for the Navy include the siege of Petropavlovsk and the Battle of Kinburn. The Navy was heavily involved in the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, the Second Opium War in China, and the French intervention in Mexico. It took part in the French expedition to Korea and the Shimonoseki campaign. In the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the Navy imposed an effective blockade of Germany, but events on land proceeded at such a rapid pace that it was superfluous. Isolated engagements between French and German ships took place in other theaters, but the war was over in a matter of weeks. The Navy continued to protect colonial safety and expansion under the French Third Republic. The Sino-French War saw considerable naval action including the Battle of Fuzhou, the Battle of Shipu, and the Pescadores Campaign. In Vietnam, the Navy helped wage the Tonkin Campaign which included the Battle of Thuận An, and it later participated in the Franco-Siamese conflict of 1893. The 19th century French Navy brought forth numerous new technologies. It led the development of naval artillery with its invention of the highly effective Paixhans gun. In 1850, Napoléon became the first steam-powered ship of the line in history, and Gloire became the first seagoing ironclad warship nine years later. In 1863, the Navy launched Plongeur, the first submarine in the world to be propelled by mechanical power. In 1876, Redoutable became the first steel-hulled warship ever. In 1887, Dupuy de Lôme became the world's first armoured cruiser. During the latter part of the century, French officers developed the so-called Jeune École (Young School) theory that emphasized the use of small, cheap torpedo boats to destroy expensive battleships, coupled with long-range commerce raiders to attack an opponent's merchant fleet.